1. Audiation. GIML The Gordon Institute for Music Learning. (n.d.). https://giml.org/mlt/audiation/ 

• Background: This article provides a thorough overview of audiation, a term coined by music educator Edwin Gordon, which refers to the process of mentally hearing and understanding music in the mind without the sound being physically present. Audiation is a fundamental concept within Gordon’s Music Learning Theory (MLT), which emphasizes that music is learned through active listening, mental manipulation of sound, and personal musical experiences. The article outlines the stages of audiation and its importance in developing musical competence, particularly for young children.
• How I used it: This article was essential in introducing the concept of audiation—the ability to hear music mentally without external sound. My essay uses this source to argue that audiation is a foundational skill in music education, particularly in young children. The essay emphasizes that audiation is not just a precursor to formal music theory but a central process that allows children to develop an internal understanding of music before they engage with written notation or complex theory. By referencing this source, I was able to highlight how music learning that prioritizes audiation supports creativity, improvisation, and fluency, which are vital for early music development.

2. Bamberger, J. (1991). The Mind Behind the Musical Ear: How Children Develop Musical Intelligence. Harvard University Press. 

• Background: This book by Judith Bamberger focuses on the cognitive and developmental aspects of musical learning, particularly in children. Bamberger explores how children develop musical intelligence through active engagement with music, including the roles of perception, action, and interaction. She argues that music learning is an integrated process that involves both cognitive and emotional development, and that children’s musical understanding grows through active participation rather than passive reception of information.
• How I used it: Although not directly quoted in the essay, Bamberger’s work was used to support the argument that early music education should be centered on hands-on, interactive learning experiences (such as singing, listening, and improvisation) rather than theoretical instruction. Her research on how children develop musical intelligence through their auditory experiences aligns with my essay’s thesis that audiation (the internal hearing of music) is a critical skill that should be developed early on. The essay could have referenced Bamberger’s insights to reinforce the idea that music education at an early age should focus more on fostering active musical engagement and cognitive development than on formal theory.

3. Can Perfect Pitch Be Learned?. Lundin, R. W. (1963). Music Educators Journal. https://doi.org/10.2307/3389949 

• Background: This article by R.W. Lundin explores the question of whether perfect pitch (the ability to identify or recreate a musical note without reference) can be developed through training. Lundin presents findings from studies that indicate perfect pitch can indeed be learned, particularly through early and intensive musical training. The article highlights experimental studies and practical methods used to develop this rare ability.
• How I used it: This article supports the essay’s argument that early music education, particularly ear training and active listening, can lead to advanced musical abilities such as perfect pitch (absolute pitch). Lundin’s findings are used to emphasize that children who undergo early and focused music training are more likely to develop the ability to recognize pitches with precision, a skill that benefits overall musicality. The essay draws from this source to assert that introducing young children to music in an engaging, auditory-focused way increases the chances of acquiring such abilities, demonstrating that early exposure to music has lasting benefits on cognitive and musical development.

4. Deutsch, D. (n.d.). 5 absolute pitch – Diana Deutsch. https://deutsch.ucsd.edu/pdf/PsyMus_3_Ch5_Absolute_Pitch.pdf.

• Background: Diana Deutsch is a leading researcher in the field of music psychology, particularly known for her work on auditory perception and music cognition. This article focuses on absolute pitch (also known as perfect pitch) and discusses the factors influencing its development, including genetic predisposition and early musical training. Deutsch’s research outlines how early exposure to music can lead to the development of perfect pitch, especially when intensive ear training is involved during a child’s critical developmental years.
• How I used it: This source is referenced to bolster the argument that perfect pitch (absolute pitch) can be acquired, and that the best time for this is during early childhood. The essay uses Deutsch’s research to highlight the critical role of early musical exposure and auditory training in developing absolute pitch. Deutsch discusses how musical training, particularly at a young age, influences the brain’s auditory processing abilities. My essay cites this source to argue that music education that emphasizes ear training and listening—not just theoretical knowledge—supports the development of heightened auditory perception and cognitive skills such as pitch recognition, which are foundational for later musical expertise.

5. Deutsch, D. (2013). Psychology of Music. Diana Deutsch – Psychology of Music. https://deutsch.ucsd.edu/psychology/pages.php?i=601.

• Background: In this detailed work, Diana Deutsch explores various facets of music cognition, with a particular focus on how the brain processes musical sounds. She discusses concepts like auditory memory, pitch recognition, and the phenomenon of absolute pitch. The book provides scientific explanations of how early and prolonged exposure to music helps shape cognitive processes, including auditory discrimination and memory.
• How I used it: Deutsch’s work is cited to support my essay’s argument that early, sustained exposure to music significantly influences cognitive processes, especially in auditory perception. The essay uses Deutsch’s research to explain how early engagement with music trains the brain to process sound more efficiently, leading to improved abilities in pitch recognition, musical memory, and auditory attention. The essay specifically draws on Deutsch’s work to make the case that focusing on auditory training through active listening, singing, and music-making is more effective in fostering long-term musical development than early reliance on formal music theory or notation.

6. Gordon, E., E. (2013). Music learning theory for newborn and young children E. Edwin Gordon. G.I.A. publications.

• Background: This work by Edwin Gordon outlines his Music Learning Theory (MLT), which presents a comprehensive approach to music education that focuses on how children learn music through listening and active engagement, rather than through rote memorization or formal notation. The theory emphasizes audiation as the core process in developing musical skills, suggesting that children first learn to hear music in their minds before they can read or write music. The book provides strategies for teaching young children based on developmental stages.
• How I used it: This book by Edwin Gordon is crucial in the essay’s explanation of Music Learning Theory (MLT), which emphasizes the role of audiation as central to musical development. The essay cites Gordon’s work to argue that children should first engage with music through active listening, singing, and improvisation, rather than immediately focusing on theory. Gordon’s theory, which is built around the concept of audiation, provides the philosophical and pedagogical foundation for the essay’s claim that experiential, auditory-based learning is superior to early theoretical music instruction. My essay highlights Gordon’s position that the development of audiation skills precedes and is more important than learning to read musical notation, thereby prioritizing musical experience over abstract music theory.

7. Gordon, E. (2012). Learning Sequences in Music: A Contemporary Music Learning Theory. GIA Publications, Inc.

• Background: This book by Edwin Gordon provides an in-depth look at the structured learning sequences that children go through as they develop musical skills. It introduces the concept of “learning sequences” that begin with the most basic auditory discrimination and progress to more advanced concepts like music theory and performance. The book also explains how children develop musical competence through listening and active participation in music before formal notation is introduced.
• How I used it: This book is used to highlight Gordon’s structured approach to music education, which advocates for specific learning sequences that begin with basic auditory experiences and progress to more complex skills like reading and writing music. My essay refers to Gordon’s sequences to reinforce the argument that music education should follow a developmental path that starts with audiation and gradually introduces theory as children are ready. The essay also draws upon Gordon’s theory to argue that early music education should focus on engaging children in music-making through improvisation, listening, and singing, which builds a strong foundation for later music theory understanding.

8. Hanna-Pladdy, B., & Mackay, A. W. (2011). The Relation Between Instrumental Music Training and Executive Functioning. Neuropsychology, 25(3), 377–388. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/The-relation-between-instrumental-musical-activity-Hanna-Pladdy-MacKay/48b2c5cf626b357333c31d686730feefd647ec70

• Background: This research article examines the cognitive benefits of instrumental music training, specifically focusing on how it influences executive functioning skills such as attention, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. The study found that children who engage in instrumental music training demonstrate enhanced executive functioning skills compared to those who do not, suggesting that the brain’s executive functions are positively affected by musical training.
• How I used it: Although ultimately not quoted in the essay, Hanna-Pladdy and Mackay’s study could have been referenced to further support the argument that music education, particularly in the early stages, plays a significant role in fostering broader cognitive development. My essay emphasizes that music education (especially auditory and active music-making practices) improves cognitive abilities such as memory, attention, and executive functions. This study provides empirical evidence to support the claim that music training—beginning in early childhood—has long-lasting positive effects on cognitive development, making it an essential component of early childhood education.

9. Hargreaves, D., & Lamont, A. (n.d.). The Psychology of Musical Development. Cambridge Core. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/psychology-of-musical-development/C6BADF11A36C530CAFD496CB5379D2FB 

• Background: This work provides a psychological perspective on how children develop musically, considering cognitive, emotional, and social factors that influence musical growth. The authors focus on how music education can enhance a child’s cognitive abilities, such as memory, attention, and problem-solving, and how these abilities can be fostered through different teaching methods.
• How I used it: The essay uses Hargreaves and Lamont’s work to explore the psychological and cognitive benefits of early music education. Specifically, the article is referenced to support the claim that music education enhances cognitive abilities like memory, attention, and problem-solving. The essay draws from their research to argue that early exposure to music doesn’t just develop musical skills but also supports overall cognitive development. This source is used to further justify the importance of an experiential, listening-based approach to music learning, asserting that music education can lead to broad cognitive benefits that extend beyond music itself.

10. Hargreaves, D. (2021, May 4). Musical Development and Learning: The international perspective. British Journal of Music Education. https://www.academia.edu/48275238/Musical_development_and_learning_The_international_perspective

• Background: Hargreaves’ article presents an international perspective on musical development, comparing music education practices across various cultures and regions. It explores how different educational systems foster musical development and the cognitive and social outcomes of early music education.
• How I used it: This article is used to demonstrate that the principles of music learning are universally relevant and beneficial, regardless of cultural or educational background. The essay references Hargreaves’ work to argue that the early music education practices emphasized in Western contexts, such as those focusing on auditory and experiential learning, can be universally applied to foster cognitive and emotional development. The article helps support my essay’s global argument for the importance of music education, particularly when the focus is on engaging children through listening and active participation.

11. Miendlarzewska, E. A., & Trost, W. J. (2014, January 20). How musical training affects cognitive development: Rhythm, reward and other modulating variables. Frontiers in neuroscience. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3957486/ 

• Background: This article reviews research on how musical training affects various cognitive functions, including memory, attention, and executive function. The authors examine the impact of rhythm, auditory perception, and music-related cognitive rewards, showing how musical training influences brain development.
• How I used it: My essay draws on Miendlarzewska and Trost’s review to support the claim that early music education has long-term cognitive benefits, including enhanced memory, attention, and executive function. The research is cited to argue that early exposure to music, particularly through rhythm and auditory training, can have far-reaching impacts on cognitive development. The article is used to substantiate the essay’s argument that music education, by engaging the brain in complex auditory processing, plays a critical role in supporting overall cognitive development and academic success.

12. Music Theory: Basics and Fundamental Concepts. Avid. (n.d.). https://www.avid.com/resource-center/music-theory 

• Background: Avid’s resource offers a primer on the fundamentals of music theory, including the structure of scales, chords, rhythm, and harmony. It is designed as an educational tool to introduce beginners to music theory concepts.
• How I used it: While the essay critiques an early focus on formal music theory, this source is used to introduce the basic concepts of music theory as a rebuttal to the essay’s primary argument. The essay uses the Avid resource to explain that music theory is important for literacy in music but makes the case that focusing on it too early, especially before developing a strong foundation in audiation, can stifle natural musical creativity. The essay refers to this source to highlight the differences between music theory (a more abstract, conceptual discipline) and audiation (a more intuitive, practical skill), suggesting that early education should prioritize the latter.

13. Reimer, B., & Webster, P. R. (1989). A Philosophy of Music Education. State University of New York Press. 

• Background: Bennett Reimer’s influential work in music education philosophy stresses the importance of understanding music theory and its role in developing musical literacy and cognitive skills. The book advocates for a more intellectual approach to music education, focusing on the role of theory in helping students understand music in a deeper way.
• How I used it: This source is used to present a counterpoint to the essay’s main argument. Reimer’s work supports the idea that music theory is an essential component of music education, even in early childhood. The essay references this source to acknowledge the argument that understanding music theory is important for developing musical literacy and discipline. However, it uses this source to critically engage with the idea that theory should be emphasized over experiential learning. The essay suggests that while Reimer’s ideas are valuable, they should be balanced with a more audiation-focused approach in the early stages of music education.

14. Schellenberg, E. G. (n.d.). Music and Cognitive Abilities. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00389.x

• Background: This article examines the relationship between music training and various cognitive abilities, such as memory, attention, and executive function. It presents a review of empirical studies showing that music training, particularly in childhood, has a positive impact on cognitive development, both in the short- and long-term.
• How I used it: Schellenberg’s research is referenced to further support the claim that music education enhances cognitive abilities such as memory, attention, and executive function. I used this source in my essay to provide additional evidence that music education (focusing on auditory skills) has broad cognitive benefits. Specifically, Schellenberg’s work is used to underscore the importance of music training in early childhood for the development of key cognitive skills that extend beyond the music classroom, making a case for why music education should be prioritized.

15. Small, C. (1998). Musicking — The Meanings of Performing and Listening. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1461380990010102 .

• Background: Christopher Small’s book takes a sociological and philosophical approach to music, arguing that music is not just a set of technical skills but a social and performative act. Small’s ideas challenge the focus on music theory and instead emphasize the social, emotional, and expressive dimensions of music.
• How I used it: Small’s work is used to critique the overemphasis on music theory in traditional music education. My essay draws from Small’s perspective to argue that the process of “musicking” (actively performing and listening) is the heart of music education, not the study of theoretical concepts. Small’s ideas about the performative, social, and emotional aspects of music-making are invoked to challenge the notion that music education should primarily be about intellectual or theoretical understanding. The essay uses Small’s ideas to call for a more holistic approach to music education that emphasizes active engagement with music over the abstract study of theory, especially for young learners.